Bilingualism C’est la Mode!
By -Alicia
Saba, M.Ed.,CCC-SLP
“Multilingualism is not
about what languages can do to people; it is about what people can do with
their languages.” Madelena Cruz-Ferreira, Linguist
We are fortunate to be living in an era and a country where learning
languages is all the rage. Gone are the days when immigrants were expected to forget
their mother tongue and replace it with mastery of the new country’s language. In fact, today being a monolingual is to be a minority.
It is estimated that more than half of the world’s population is bilingual.1,2
Today we read, discuss and debate terms like bilingualism, multilingualism and
monolingualism. We research and publish articles, books, blogs and podcasts on
the benefits of communicating in other languages and the various ways to become
bilingual. And of course we are in constant search for the best avenues to
foster bilingualism in our children.
So what do these terms mean? Bilingualism is simply the capacity to
express oneself easily in two languages in daily life. Multilingualism is the
ability to communicate in three or more languages. In this chapter we will use
the term bilingualism for the sake of simplicity. Additionally let us hope that
while living in France, we too will become bilingual with time!
Today there is still a debate about the level of proficiency one
needs to obtain in order to be considered officially bilingual. The idea of
equal language proficiency in the domains of speaking, listening, reading and
writing is not only difficult to determine but, it is not realistic. This is perhaps the main misconception
bilinguals face as they use their languages for different contexts of their
lives (school, work, home, etc.). A bilingual may have dominance in one
language or not be literate in another. A bilingual may know a language
receptively, meaning they only understand it and yet not be able to use the
language to express themselves. Language dominance may even change during a
person’s life depending on the circumstances in which they need to use their
languages. Only a small minority of people have equal and perfect fluency in
all of their languages. Equal bilinguals are rare.
How then does one acquire more than one language, when is the right
time and what about language mixing? The circumstances of how one becomes
bilingual are numerous and there is no single best model that suits everyone.
For example you might know of the one parent one language approach (OPOL). This
is when the mother speaks one language to her child and the father uses a
separate one (whether or not the two parents speak each other’s language).
Another mode is for a child to learn one language at home and another language
at school. But whatever the plan, it is important to keep in mind the key
factor to learning any language is need.
If a child realizes that it is a necessity to learn to communicate using all of
his or her languages, he or she will acquire the language(s). Anytime in one’s
life is a good time to become bilingual. There is no right time. It appears to
be easier the younger we are, however, we can learn languages simultaneously
and or consecutively. And of course, the younger we are the more likely we are
to acquire the native accent. (Note that having an accent does not make one
more or less fluent or bilingual.) Additionally,
it is perfectly normal for children learning multiple languages to “code switch”
or “code mix” languages as they learn. It is also perfectly natural for them to
code switch later when speaking to other bilinguals. This cognitive flexibility
allows them to better express themselves using bits and pieces of one language
that are better said in another.
Ultimately though it is important to remember successful language
acquisition occurs when one is exposed to rich and diverse language experiences
in all languages being learned. This means in the domains of reading, writing,
listening and speaking.
What about literacy and the bilingual
child? This subject alone educes much discussion and question. How can my child
develop literacy skills if they do not attend a bilingual school? Unfortunately many families, whether
monolingual or bilingual, do not have access to bilingual schools. Even though
it certainly makes acquiring literacy skills easier, parents can still have
biliterate children even if they are educated in monolingual classrooms. Should
my child learn to read in one language first and then another? Will the
encoding and decoding knowledge transfer to the other language? What if the
languages have different alphabets? Just as a child can learn to speak several
languages, he or she can learn to read in consecutive languages or in both
simultaneously. It ultimately depends on
what is best for a family. These are valid questions that will require some
parental creativity as a child learns to read. Being able to pair symbols to
speech sounds is a skill that takes time for most children to develop. Any
confusion a bilingual child might have initially will be solved with time.
My child has a disability and/or has been diagnosed with a language
disorder, will learning two or more languages cause speech delay? Historically
it was thought that if a child was having trouble learning one language then
two languages would be harder to acquire and exceed his or her
language-learning capacities. Unfortunately this belief is still being
circulated today. Research shows if a child has a language disorder in one
language he or she will have it in their other languages. Research also
demonstrates there is no correlation between multilingualism and language delay.1-3
Both simultaneous and sequential bilinguals with language impairment can
learn second languages but not with any greater difficulty than their
monolingual peers with the same language impairment.4-8,14 Learning
one language will not impede the development of another; in fact research shows
it is a benefit.5,14
Likewise it is important to not stop
speaking the home language to a child with a language disorder. Historically experts advised parents to speak
the dominant or the country’s language to their child thinking that
bilingualism was a burden to a child with language impairments. Several
problems may arise when this rule is applied: If parents communicate with their
child in a language they are not comfortable in, it may jeopardize the
relationship in emotional and psychological ways. Emotion, culture and identity
are best transmitted in the home language.13 By not speaking the
home language, children risk to be excluded from family
discussions, decisions, gatherings, etc.11,13 Additionally, by asking the
parent to speak in a non-native language to their child, it ultimately serves
as a poor communication model.5 Parents are better communicators in their
native languages. Building a strong
foundation in a child’s home language will better assist the development of a
consecutive language.
Lastly, should a child need educational and developmental testing,
it is encouraged to do so in all of their languages whenever possible. The
reason being is that bilingual speakers do not possess equivalent skill sets in
their various languages.10 By
assessing each language, it allows clinicians and educators to have a more
equally balanced language profile of a bilingual child and to help them rule
out language disorders versus language differences. Language differences are
aspects of normal language development such as pronunciation or grammatical
errors a child makes when acquiring language and should not be mistaken as a
language disorder. Should a bilingual
child require language therapy, it is encouraged to seek treatment in all of his
or her languages to better support and develop their language skills.12
Just like a neurotypical child, rich language experiences are needed for
commensurate language development for children with disabilities.1,9
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Alicia Saba, M.Ed.,CCC-SLP, moved from
NYC to France in 2003 with her French husband.
She is a practicing speech-language pathologist who worked for numerous
years in hospitals and medical settings in the U.S. and now treats children and
adults in the Paris area. Alicia is rearing three bilingual and bi-cultural
children 2ème (10th grade), 6ème (6th grade), and CE2 (3nd grade) in public
schools in Paris and takes particular interest in the education
of SEN children.
Resources
1. Grosjean, Francois. The extent of bilingualism. In Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2. Cruz-Ferreira, M (2012) Socialinguistic and cultural considerations when working with multilingual children. In McLeod, S. & Goldstein, B.A. (eds) Multilingual Aspects of Speech Sound Disorders in Children. Bristol: Multilingual Matters 13-23.
3. Petersen, J.M., Marinova-Todd, S.H., & Mirenda, P. (2012) Brief report: An exploratory study of lexical skills in bilingual children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42 (7), 1499-1503.
4. Hambly, C. & Fombonne, E. (2011, September 22). The impact of bilingual environments on language development in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. [Epub ahead of print]
5. Paradis, J. (2010). The interface between bilingual development and specific language impairment. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31, 227-252.
6. Paradis, J., Crago, M., Genesee F., & Rice, M. (2003). Bilingual children with specific language impairment: How do they compare with their monolingual peers? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 1-15.
7. Gutierrez-Clellen, V., Simon-Cereijido, G, & Wagner, C. (2008). Bilingual children with language impairment: A comparison with monolinguals and second language learners. Applied Linguistics, 29, 3-20.
8. Petersen, J., Marinova-Todd, S.H, & Mirenda, P. (2011). An exploratory study of lexical skills in bilingual children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. DOI: 10.1007/s10803-011-1366-y.
9. Paradis, J., Genesee, F., & Crago, M. (2011). Dual Language Development and Disorders: A handbook on bilingualism & second language learning. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
10. Elizabeth Peña, Lisa M. Bedore, and Christina Rappazzo (2003) Comparison of Spanish, English, and Bilingual Children’s Performance Across Semantic Tasks. Language, Speech, Hearing Services in Schools, Vol. 34, 5-16.
11. Kohnert, 2007 Language Disorders in Bilingual Children and Adults.
12. Yu, B., (2013) Issues in Bilingualism and Heritage Language Maintenance: Perspectives of Minority-Language Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology Vol. 22, 10-24.
13. Wong-Fillmore, L. (1991). When learning a second language means losing the first. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 232-346.
14. Genesee, F., (2009) Early childhood bilingualism: Perils and possibilities. Journal of Applied Research on Learning. Vol. 2, Article 2.
1. Grosjean, Francois. The extent of bilingualism. In Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2. Cruz-Ferreira, M (2012) Socialinguistic and cultural considerations when working with multilingual children. In McLeod, S. & Goldstein, B.A. (eds) Multilingual Aspects of Speech Sound Disorders in Children. Bristol: Multilingual Matters 13-23.
3. Petersen, J.M., Marinova-Todd, S.H., & Mirenda, P. (2012) Brief report: An exploratory study of lexical skills in bilingual children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42 (7), 1499-1503.
4. Hambly, C. & Fombonne, E. (2011, September 22). The impact of bilingual environments on language development in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. [Epub ahead of print]
5. Paradis, J. (2010). The interface between bilingual development and specific language impairment. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31, 227-252.
6. Paradis, J., Crago, M., Genesee F., & Rice, M. (2003). Bilingual children with specific language impairment: How do they compare with their monolingual peers? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 1-15.
7. Gutierrez-Clellen, V., Simon-Cereijido, G, & Wagner, C. (2008). Bilingual children with language impairment: A comparison with monolinguals and second language learners. Applied Linguistics, 29, 3-20.
8. Petersen, J., Marinova-Todd, S.H, & Mirenda, P. (2011). An exploratory study of lexical skills in bilingual children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. DOI: 10.1007/s10803-011-1366-y.
9. Paradis, J., Genesee, F., & Crago, M. (2011). Dual Language Development and Disorders: A handbook on bilingualism & second language learning. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
10. Elizabeth Peña, Lisa M. Bedore, and Christina Rappazzo (2003) Comparison of Spanish, English, and Bilingual Children’s Performance Across Semantic Tasks. Language, Speech, Hearing Services in Schools, Vol. 34, 5-16.
11. Kohnert, 2007 Language Disorders in Bilingual Children and Adults.
12. Yu, B., (2013) Issues in Bilingualism and Heritage Language Maintenance: Perspectives of Minority-Language Mothers of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology Vol. 22, 10-24.
13. Wong-Fillmore, L. (1991). When learning a second language means losing the first. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 232-346.
14. Genesee, F., (2009) Early childhood bilingualism: Perils and possibilities. Journal of Applied Research on Learning. Vol. 2, Article 2.